Roman Naming Conventions
Naming Conventions for Males
“THREE NAME CONVENTION (TRIA NOMINA).” Anyone who’s watched a “sand and sandal” flic, like Gladiator, is familiar with this concept; most Romans had three names, such as “Gaius Iulius Caesar.”
The components of the TRIA NOMINA were PRENOMEN, “Gaius”; NOMEN, “Iulius”; and COGNOMEN, “Caesar.” Think of the three names as “First Name,” “Clan Name,” and “Nickname.”
PRAENOMEN, the First Name, was an intimate and personal name chosen by a child’s father and bestowed on the dies lustricus, the ritual purification performed on the eighth day after the birth. During Insubrecus’ time, there were about three dozen praenomina in use but only about eighteen were common. Patricians tended to limit the number of praenomina that they used far more than plebeians. The eldest son was often named after the father, and younger sons were named after male relatives and ancestors. At times, PRAENOMINA indicated birth order: Primus, “First”; Secundus, “Second”; Tertius, “Third”; etc. Romans were called by their PRAENOMIA only by members of their family, intimate friends, close social equals, and superiors. So, Caesar refers to Insubrecus as “Gai,” while Insubrecus calls Caesar “Patrone” in private and “Imperator” in public.
NOMEN (or NOMEN GENTILICUM) the Clan Name, was the closest thing that Romans had to a “last name” in modern western usage. The NOMEN designated a Roman as a member of a gens, or “clan,” an extended group of individuals supposedly descended from a common ancestor. An individual could acquire a NOMEN GENTILICUM either by being born into a clan, being adopted into a clan, or by owing citizenship to a member of a clan by emancipation, patronage, or a grant of citizenship. So, Insubrecus is a member of the gens Maria through his grandfather to whom the dictator, Gaius Marius, granted Roman citizenship. When Insubrecus emancipated his daughter’s maid, Ancilla, she became Maria Ancilla. Gens were divided into two categories, patrician and plebeian clans. Gens Iulia was a patrician clan that allowed Caesar to wear calceus mulleus, red boots, in the senate; Insubrecus’ gens Maria, was a plebeian clan. During Insubrecus’ time, nomina did not indicate senatorial status. So, members of Plebeian clans who were members of the Senate, for example Crassus, were intitled to a broad purple stripe on toga and tunic, but sadly no red boots.
COGNOMEN, the Nickname, was as an additional personal name useful for distinguishing between individuals of a family group or a clan. COGNOMINA were somewhat akin to modern “nicknames”; they were often the means of address between social equals. COGNOMINA arose from any number of factors: family names, personal characteristics, habits, occupations, places of origin, heroic exploits, etc. They were often irreverent. For example, Caesar meant “bushy hair”; Insubrecus meant “of the Insubres nation.” The author imagines that Roman soldiers identified with a COGNOMEN that was given to them by their training officers or comrades based on some quirk or habit. Insubrecus was called Pagane, “Hick,” because of his rural origins; Insubrecus’ assistant is called Mustela, Weasel, because his training officer though he looked like one; in Alexendria, Insubrecus met a soldier called Culex, “Mosquito,” because he annoyed his training officer. Common COGNOMINA for centurions were Fustus and Calvus, “Cudgel,” after the vine staff they carried and used liberally.
And now for something completely different.
Romans could have four names!
AGNOMEN. This class of COGNOMINA included two main types of: COGNOMEN EX VIRTUTE, and COGNOMINA indicating the original gens of Romans who had been adopted into another gens.
COGNOMIA EX VIRTUTE. These were names derived from some virtuous or heroic episode attributed to the bearer. COGNOMINA EX VIRTUTE were typically awarded to an individual by the Senate. For example, Aulus Postumius Albus Regillensis commanded the Roman army at the Battle of Lake Regillus; Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus commanded the Roman army that defeated Hannibal at the Battle of Zama. In Insubrecus’ time, Caesar’s partner and son-in-law, was Gnaeus Pompeius, son of Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo (“Cock-eyed”) the head of a prominent provincial clan. Pompeius originally had no COGNOMEN. The dictator, Sulla, granted him the AGNOMEN, Magnus, “Great One,” for his support during Sulla’s wars against Marius.
COGNOMINA Through Adoption. This was Roman snobbery similar to the modern use of hyphenated last names among the rich and elite. The primary purpose of adoption by Patrician families was to ensure the continuity of the clan. For example, since Caesar had no male heir, he adopted his nephew, Gaius Octavius Thurinus, his sister’s son. Although gens Octavia was a plebeian clan, when little Thurinus was adopted into the gens Iulia, he became a patrician with the name Gaius Iulius Caesar Octavianus. His AGNOMEN was formed by adding a diminutive ending to his original NOMEN, Octavius. In order to insult him, Antonius referred to him as Thurinus, his original plebeian COGNOMEN, while Brutus, the assassin, called him Octavius, his plebeian NOMEN, as if Caesar’s adoption never took place.
Insubrecus sometimes refers to him as “The Boy Wonder,” but not in his hearing.
Two-Name Romans
In the Insubrecus novels, members of the Roman “working class,” mostly the legionary grunts and the town watchmen, will refer to someone as a “real three-namer” to indicate someone who is pretentious, affected, officious, etc. as if having three names was a sign of Roman nobility. Opiter Caesonius Rectus, “Ole Eyebrows,” one of the Mediolanum triumviri, is a prime example.
Actually, having three names as opposed to two, was not necessarily an indictor of social standing. Insubrecus comrade, Marcus Antonius, had no COGNOMEN despite his possessing senatorial status and gens Antonia being both an ancient patrician and plebeian clan claiming descent from Anton, son of Heracles. (Antonius’ PRAENOMEN, Marcus, seems to indicate that he descended from the plebian branch of the clan).
Insubrecus’ mentor, Quintus Macro, seems to lack a NOMEN, since there is no record of a gens Macra. He seems to sport a NOMEN CASTRORUM, a “camp name,” “Big Quint” or “Skinny Quint.” His adopted son with the “funny, eastern accent,” goes by Quintus Macro Iunior, the younger. No more can be safely said about Iunior.
Many muli, legionary grunts, and a few of Rubria’s less than savory associates, are two-namers who have taken a “camp name” as a COGNOMEN, a nickname. So, we have a few called Strabo, “Cockeyed”; Lorarius, “Flogger”; Quadratus, “Square”; Saxus, “Rock”; Maculus, “Spot”; Crispus, “Curly” etc. Caesar’s camp name was Calvus, “Baldy,” which he seemed to relish despite his vanity … Caesar Calvus, “Bushy Baldy.”
Unemancipated slaves had no legal names. In the novels, they are referred to by their function. In the office, there are a few called Scriba, “Clerk”; in the camp, there’s a Cocus, “Cook”; Calo, “Orderly”; Tutor, “Supervisor.” Insubrecus calls his daughters companion, Ancilla, “Maid.” The army slaves, at the end of their contract, would be granted the name of the army commander at the time of their emancipation, so we could imagine Tutor becoming Gaius Iulius Tutor, when he was freed and granted the franchise. Ancilla becomes Maria Ancilla Insubreci(The Undead Queen).
Naming Conventions for Females
Now we have an altogether different chariot race since Roman society was what modern-day social critics would characterize as “patristic.”
The PATER FAMILIAS ruled the FAMILIA as a despot ruling a tiny state, the FAMILIA being comprised of wife, children, various dependents, and slaves, FAMULI.
According to the MOS MAIORUM, the “customs of the ancestors,” the PATER FAMILIAS had a duty to father and raise healthy children for the state who observed Roman PIETAS, fidelity to the gods, to the state, to the family, in that order. He possessed all property and moneys attributed to the FAMILIA and held the power of life and death over every member.
In Insubrecus’ time, despite its legality, executing one’s children was frowned upon. In fact, executing slaves was considered extreme despite Roman jitters over recent slave revolts. Chastisement of a wife was not recommended either for two main reasons: first, the wife may be the daughter of a rich and powerful father who might take exception to it; two, the wife, who controlled the kitchen, may serve up a fatal mushroom stew.
I told you all that so I could explain that most Roman women did not have PRAENOMINA or COGNOMINA. Daughters were known by the feminine form of the NOMEN GENTILICUM of her father. So, the daughter of Gaius Iulius Caesar was named Iulia; the daughter of Gaius Marius Insubrecus, Maria.
Outside the FAMILIA, woman may be specified by her father’s NOMEN, as in Iulia Caesaris, Caesar’s Julia.
Sisters were often identified in a variety of ways. For example, Insubrecus’ daughters were all named Maria: the eldest was Maria Maior; the next, Maria Minor; and lastly, Maria Minima, a clear indication that Insubrecus and Rhonwen were done.
Daughters could also be identified by birth sequence, Prima, Secunda, Tertia, etc.
I imagine, daughters were also given pet names: Maria Maior was called Brana, “Raven,” due to her dark coloring; Maria Minor was called Edana, “The Terror,” to fit her personality; the youngest was called “Mina” (Blood Vengeance)
Insubrecus’ mother, Helvetia Minor, was the second daughter of a Roman towny, Lucius Helvetius Naso Iunior, the “Nose.” She was given the pet name, Valeria which, depending on whom you asked, indicated “Courageous” or “Good Riddance” (The Gabinian Affair).
Women did not change their names when married; they did not adopt the COGNOMEN of the husband. Rhonwen mab Gwen never became Maria but adopted the Roman name Flavia, a rough translation of her father’s name, Gwen, because she got tired of Romans mispronouncing her Gallic name (Blood Vengeance).
By the end of the Republic, COGNOMINA were often regarded as proper names or a means of identifying the branch of a clan. So, a woman might be referred to by the feminine form of her father’s COGNOMEN; the daughter of Lucius Caecilius Metellus was often referred to as Caecilia Metella.
Women’s COGNOMINA were often given diminutive forms, such as Agrippina from Agrippa, or Drusilla from Drusus.
Insubrecus’ nemesis, Gabinia, the daughter of Aulus Gabinius, was often referred to by her friends and intimate enemies as Gabi. She gave herself the somewhat pretentious nickname, Pulcra “Beautiful,” (The Gabinian Affair).
After she bumped off her first husband, a rich but dottering senatorial associate of her father, she became SUI IURIS, in charge of her own affairs with no male guardian (no one dared to take the job). She took up with the gangster, Milo, working for the triumvir, Pompeius. She then set Milo up for the murder of Clodius, Caesar’s man, and took over both Clodius and Milo’s rackets (Murder on the Appian Way, forthcoming).
When she became Livia’s go-to-gal, the name Gabinia Pulchra was whispered with fear and awe in the lowest gutters and highest levels of Roman society (Blood Vengeance).
When she and Rufia cooperated on the Thraex affair, they agreed to respect each other’s territories; Rufia included Insubrecus as part of her territory since he was running her “protection racket” under the guise of the urban vigiles. So, it seems that Insubrecus is finally protected from Gabi’s persistent attempts of converting him into fish bait … we’ll see!